​Threat and error management (TEM) is a safety management framework that guides aviation operations and personnel performance. TEM makes the assumption that aviation personnel, particularly pilots, often encounter high risk situations and make errors, so there is a need to develop a model that helps stakeholders in the aviation industry to understand the connection between human performance and safety within the operational context.

There are three major components that constitutue the TEM framework. They are errors, threats, and undesired states. Errors refer to actions or inactions from key personnel that deviate from operational or organization intentions. This eventually results in undesired states.

On the other hand, undesired states are operational conditions that are caused by ineffective threat or error management. Undesired states usually cause a reduction in an aircraft’s margin of safety.

Threats are events that occur beyond the influence of the key or line personnel, resulting in increased operational complexity and risk. Threats need to be managed to ensure a proper margin of safety for the aircraft.

​Runway excursions occur when aircraft inadvertently skid off of runways while attempting to land or take off. Runway excursions can cause structural damage to the aircraft, result in operational disruptions, and injure passengers and crew. According to Foreflight, about 80 percent of runway excursions happen during landings.

Runway excursions can be a result of a variety of different factors. The most common are contaminated runways, inaccurate weather reports, flight crew handling errors, and mechanical failures. Inaccurate reporting of weather conditions like wind direction, variation, and strength can push an aircraft off its course. Meanwhile, a runway that has an excess amount of ice, snow, slush, or water is considered contaminated and can cause the aircraft to skid off the runway.

There are three major types of runway excursions: veer-off, overrun on takeoff, and overrun on landing. A veer-off involves the aircraft deviates course off the side of the runway. Overrun on takeoff occurs when the aircraft does not get into the air before the runway runs out, causing it to skid past the edge of the runway. Overrun on landing, on the other hand, happens when the aircraft is unable to stop before it reaches the end of the runway during landing.

​Established in 1996, the UAE's General Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) regulates civil aviation in the United Arab Emirates. The GCAA oversees over 550 organizations nationwide and ensures the provision of air traffic services and adherence to safety and security protocols within the national airspace.

The Safety Affairs department handles all matters related to technical safety. Its Flight Operations section regulates safety activities in private and commercial air transport. It issues Air Operator Certificates and monitors these operators' standards and operations.

Next, the Airworthiness Section ensures aircraft comply with UAE civil aviation regulations, including registration requirements. This section also standardizes maintenance organizations both within the UAE and abroad and offers specialist input during accident and incident investigations.

Finally, the Licensing Branch oversees the regulatory development and licensing of aviation personnel, including flight and cabin crews, dispatchers, engineers, mechanics, and medical professionals. The branch works alongside the Air Navigation and Aerodrome (ANA) Department, which manages civil airports and airspace in the UAE.

​A safety concept applied for human performance in aviation, Threat and Error Management (TEM) enables flight crews to prepare for routine and unforeseen anomalies. TEM helps the aviation sector understand the relationship between human performance and safety. It has also extended to other industries, such as medicine and nuclear power generation.

TEM stems from the development of a Human Factors Research Project by the University of Texas and Delta Airlines. Previous studies indicated that the aviation industry had not addressed its dynamic environment, collaboration between operators, and their working environments. Threat and Error Management in the aviation industry is similar to defensive driving for motorists.

Defensive driving teaches drivers how to embrace driving skills that minimize safety risks. TEM training acts as “defensive driving” for pilots. Several factors affect aviation safety, such as technological, organizational, human, and environmental factors. If not well addressed, these factors can compromise operational safety and lower the chances of a safe flight.

Sometimes, aviation crews have no control over threats or events. Crews can prepare for the unexpected by conducting a thorough briefing in accordance with standard company operating procedures. For example, crews can prepare for a low-visibility approach.

Unexpected threats include an in-flight technical issue or emergency that airline crews deal with using their knowledge and expertise. On the other hand, errors refer to pilot actions or inactions that disrupt organizational expectations and flight crew intentions. There are three types of errors: aircraft handling errors, communication errors, and procedural errors.

​Effective restaurant operations rely on meticulous planning, organization, and oversight of processes. Most importantly, when acquiring a previously unprofitable restaurant, business owners need to implement process improvements in key areas.

One vital area is menu engineering. By analyzing the market, restaurants can pinpoint popular menu items and learn optimal pricing and customer preferences. It is essential to involve key personnel in this process and assign clear responsibilities. For instance, chefs, with their culinary expertise, should lead in determining ingredients, creating/refining recipes, portion sizes, and meal preparation. In contrast, manager involvement in menu engineering often adds little value and can incur unnecessary costs.

Operational consolidation is key to boosting efficiency. For example, merging revenue documentation with distributor expenses reduces the time and potential for errors associated with managing these processes separately. Leveraging standard office software and internet tools can also simplify distributor management, ordering, expense and revenue tracking, and generating reports for managerial review. 

Technology can greatly enhance restaurant operations and eliminate errors. Inventory management software ensures real-time stock control, minimizing waste and stockouts. Kitchen Display Systems (KDS) digitize order flow, improving kitchen-to-front-of-house staff communication and order accuracy and reducing reliance on paper tickets. Additionally, tablet-based menus can streamline ordering, offer flexibility for instant menu updates, and provide valuable customer data.

​The General Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA), a UAE regulatory body created in 1996, oversees civil aviation safety and security and manages over 500 organizations within the national airspace system. The organization's Safety Affairs department has four sections. 

Flight Operations evaluates commercial and private air carriers, conducting thorough inspections prior to certification. Airworthiness enforces UAE aviation regulations and establishes maintenance standards. The licensing branch manages aviation personnel licensing for various aviation personnel, including flight crews, dispatchers, air traffic controllers, and ground engineers. Air Navigation and Aerodrome (ANA) supervises UAE's airspace and civil airports and related services, including airspace planning and design, search and rescue coordination, and aerodrome rescue and firefighting.

To enhance safety, the GCAA has established regulations for operating unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for both recreational and commercial purposes. For recreational uses, private operators must register drones under 5 kg and fly only during the day within approved green zones. Commercial operators need authorization, including security clearance and permission for each flight. Additional measures, including reporting protocols and age restrictions, help balance innovation with safety.

The Security Affairs Division complements safety efforts by managing security policies, regulations, and inspections. It conducts intelligence and threat analyses to maintain safety in the UAE's civil aviation sector. Key operations include regulating dangerous goods, training and facilitating airport security screeners, and sharing intelligence with domestic and international security authorities.

In aviation, runway safety remains a major safety concern as runway excursions or overrunning the runway incidents have become the most prevalent type of aircraft accident. Therefore, the field has developed the Threat and Error Management (TEM) protocol.

TEM outlines human performance steps to prevent, assess, and remediate runway excursions. Originally developed as a guide for airline flight deck operations, aviation now applies TEM across departments and facilities. It links safety to human performance within a complex and dynamic operating environment.

As a framework, TEM has become a part of on-the-job training and the implementation of organizational safeguards. It helps train quality assurance (QA) specialists and evaluate the operations of specific facilities and departments as part of standards-based certification processes.

TEM's “Threats” element covers potential errors and events, such as a storm, that add to operational complexity. The threats become beyond the ability of personnel to influence, yet they must manage them to maintain proper safety margins. The “Errors” element covers personnel actions or inactions that cause deviations from operational or organizational intentions and expected outcomes. Within the operational context, they are human performance failures that reduce safety margins and increase the likelihood of an undesirable event.

Some compare TEM to defensive driving techniques that motorists follow on the road. They reduce the likelihood of an accident by following safe, consistent practices in unpredictable situations. TEM does not serve as a tool to train personnel to fly airplanes. Instead, it lays down ways to prepare flight, runway, and traffic control crews with coordinative and cognitive abilities to handle divergences from the norm.

One key phrase associated with TEM is “undesired states,” or operational conditions that allow an unintended situation to occur or escalate, impacting safety. An undesired aircraft state often happens in that last stage before an accident or incident. It encompasses flight crew-induced deviations from intended speed or position, the misuse of flight controls, and incorrectly configured systems. Each can result in exceeding aircraft limitations and, related to runway safety, an unstable, long, or off-centerline landing that potentially continues off the runway.

Undesired states can lead to three outcomes. In a mitigation scenario, the flight crew cannot detect the error, manage and correct it before it becomes consequential. In an exacerbation scenario, the flight crew, though aware of the error, acts in a way that has a negative outcome. In a failure-to-respond situation, the flight crew ignores the error or does not react since they do not have an awareness or understanding of the error and the danger it poses.

Aviation professionals use the TEM concept to mitigate and manage threats and errors associated with runway excursions. On the traffic controller side, personnel may mitigate threats by providing accurate surface reports when runway conditions become wet or compromised. They provide tailwind information, which helps pilots plot a steady and gradual landing through crosswinds. The action allows them to avoid unstable and high and fast approaches and fast and long touchdowns.

In addition, TEM principles help evaluate runway excursion incidents. For example, United Airlines flight 2477 experienced a runway excursion at the George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston on March 8, 2024. Before beginning the final descent, the captain checked with Houston Approach Control, which recommend a particular runway. The pilot requested another runway and gained approval. Indeed, the tower controller approved the request to roll to the end of runway 27 with the comment, “Keep your speed up.” The captain changed his auto brake setting accordingly to slow deceleration.

With the runway appearing dry and in good condition, the captain correctly applied the brakes and deployed thrust reversers in a proper idle-reverse thrust setting. Touchdown seemed without incident until the pilot applied brakes manually using toe brakes, around 6,000 feet from the runway end. The action revealed that deceleration started occurring slower than normal. Then, the rudder brake pedals and fuselage started shaking violently, with the plane sliding off the runway and onto the grass.

Investigators later found that the left MLG tires had impacted a concrete manhole. It contained an electrical junction box used for airport lights and utilities. The impact had caused the tires to detach from the airplane at the fuse pins, which prevented more serious structural aircraft damage. The incident showed the controller and pilot's correct application of TEM principles and how unintended situations may still occur that jeopardize safety.

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challenges and embrace technological advances. As the aviation industry continues to grow, so too does the importance of implementing effective safety measures to ensure the well-being of passengers, crew, and aircraft.

Aviation authorities around the world continuously update and refine regulations to keep pace with technological advances and emerging safety risks. The collaboration between airlines, manufacturers, and regulatory bodies is essential for maintaining a unified approach to safety management globally.

One of the most significant trends in aviation safety management is the shift toward data-driven decision making. Airlines and aviation authorities are harnessing the power of big data analytics to identify potential safety risks, predict maintenance needs, and improve overall safety. By analyzing vast amounts of data from sources such as flight records, maintenance reports, and incident databases, stakeholders can proactively address safety concerns and make more informed decisions.

Furthermore, the implementation of predictive analytics allows for the early identification of potential safety hazards. For instance, predictive maintenance models can detect patterns in aircraft component performance data to forecast potential failures, enabling timely maintenance interventions and preventing unexpected in-flight problems.

Automation and AI technologies have also improved aviation safety management by enhancing efficiency and reducing human error. Advanced flight control systems, predictive maintenance algorithms, and autonomous drones are just a few examples of how automation is being integrated into safety protocols. AI-powered tools can analyze data in real-time, detect anomalies, and even predict potential safety issues before they occur, allowing for timely intervention and risk mitigation.

Furthermore, automation contributes to improving safety by streamlining operational processes, reducing workload, and enabling more precise decision-making. By automating routine tasks such as data analysis and report generation, aviation professionals can focus their efforts on strategic safety initiatives and proactive risk management.

Safety management systems (SMS) provide a systematic approach to identifying, assessing, and mitigating risks. As part of the industry’s ongoing commitment to safety, there is a growing emphasis on integrating SMS into all aspects of aviation operations. This includes fostering a safety culture among employees, implementing robust reporting mechanisms, and continuously improving safety processes through feedback and analysis.

Moreover, the integration of SMS with other operational systems, such as quality management and risk assessment tools, facilitates a comprehensive approach to safety management. By aligning safety objectives with broader organizational goals, airlines can enhance operational efficiency while maintaining a strong focus on safety.

Despite technological advances, human factors remain a critical aspect of aviation safety management. Crew resource management (CRM) training aids in promoting effective communication, decision making, and teamwork among flight crews. Additionally, ongoing research into human performance and fatigue management is helping to identify and address potential safety risks associated with human error.

By investing in CRM training programs and incorporating human factor principles into operational procedures, airlines can mitigate the impact of human error on safety performance. Additionally, the implementation of fatigue risk management systems (FRMS) enables airlines to proactively manage crew fatigue and minimize its adverse effects on safety.

Ultimately, staying abreast of regulatory changes and actively participating in industry initiatives enables airlines to demonstrate their commitment to safety and contribute to the development of best practices. The adherence to international safety standards enhances interoperability and facilitates seamless cooperation between airlines operating in different regions.

​The aviation industry is renowned for rapidly adopting cutting-edge technology, with several notable trends shaping its landscape. One of the top technological trends in aviation is radio-frequency identification (RFID).

RFID aims to streamline baggage handling processes and enhance customer service. By utilizing small electronic devices embedded with RFID tags, airlines can track checked baggage in real time, minimizing the occurrence of lost or misplaced items. This technology significantly boosts efficiency in baggage handling operations, benefitting both airlines and passengers.

Another significant trend is the emergence of autonomous or pilotless aircraft. These aircraft operate independently, without human pilots, offering potential advantages such as reduced human error and enhanced operational efficiency. Adopting autonomous aircraft promises cost savings and improved safety within the aviation industry.

Furthermore, artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly prominent in aviation. AI technologies function as intelligent assistants, capable of analyzing vast amounts of data to optimize flight safety and efficiency. By employing advanced algorithms, AI systems can identify potential risks and recommend optimal flight routes, contributing to enhanced safety standards within the industry.

​Defensive flying is similar to defensive driving. The idea is to stay a step ahead of the curve when it comes to flying safety. The basic principle behind the approach to flying is never to assume that others working in the airspace or ground, such as air traffic controllers, other pilots, air traffic controllers, or even Mother Nature, will take care of you.

Also known as Threat and Error Management (TEM), defensive flying proposes threats and errors that flight crews must manage daily. An example of a threat is adverse weather. Meanwhile, errors can mean the pilot's wrong selection of the automatic flying mode or altitude deviation. Threat management covers how flight crews anticipate and respond to such scenarios.

Standard operating procedures (SOPs) and checklists impact a pilot's ability to handle or respond to unusual circumstances while flying a plane. Because SOPs form the foundation of safe flying or craft management, cabin crew must never attempt to circumvent the protocols or take shortcuts in their work routines.

In particular, the cabin crew must not allow disruptions to interfere with implementing SOPs. By adding structure to safety precautions, SOPs help implement best practices in many abnormal or unusual plane management situations. For example, pilots must be conversant with all flight information as stipulated in section 91.103 of Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations or 14 CFR. The information includes aircraft gross weight, airport runway lengths and slope, takeoff and landing distance, wind, and temperature.

Using an appropriate aircraft checklist is another resource for pilots, particularly when dealing with abnormal and emergency cockpit situations. A checklist ensures that pilots follow proper aircraft configuration for every flight phase. It contains a list of tasks that must be completed and their order of execution during aircraft operation, including emergencies.

The habit of using a checklist should never be allowed to fade over time or taken for granted whether the pilot has flown the same plane many times or over the same flight path. The checklist is especially important when cruising or flying long distances. Regular use of an appropriate checklist also enhances performance and efficiency.

Defensive flying responsibilities don't end with the pilot. In particular, co-pilots have big roles in ensuring safety. All other cabin crew must never assume that emergency or abnormal situations can never arise because the chief pilot has logged thousands of flying hours. Everybody on board must always be prepared for unexpected situations and may be called upon to use their flight skills during critical phases like takeoff and landing.

Whether an airline pilot, a commercial flight instructor, or a co-pilot, it's essential to be in some form of defensive positioning to help manage an emergency. This, however, doesn't mean interfering with normal cabin or cockpit activities or hovering over the aircraft controls.

Finally, the role of adequate rest before and between commencing flight duty cannot be underplayed. Fatigue is generally difficult to self-diagnose and can lead to flying disasters. Cabin crew should consciously monitor their stress, alertness, and fitness levels when on duty.